(Definitions written by Mary Spratt, edited by Alan Pulverness)
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Target languageThis term is used in two different ways. One use is to identify the language, e.g. Mandarin, Arabic, Spanish, English etc that a learner is trying to learn. Another use is to refer to the particular item(s) of language that a teacher selects for learners to learn in a particular lesson and which the activities and materials in a lesson aim to teach. Example Some target language for a lesson for elementary learners might be: the irregular past tenses went, took, came, sold, bought, saw, said, found in affirmative, negative and interrogative forms or exponents for suggesting: why don’t we../ how about +gerund/ we could…./ what about + gerund or vocabulary from the lexical set of clothes: jeans, top, shoes, sandals, sweat-shirt, jacket, scarf, coat. Further reading Bolton, K. and Kachru, B. (2006). World Englishes, Critical Concepts in Linguistics, Volume 5. Scrivener, J. (2011). Learning Teaching, 3rd edition. London: Macmillan. http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/taskbased.html http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/target-language https://www.cambridge.org/elt/resources/appliedlinguistics/reading/WorldEnglishes_Sample_Ch3.pdf
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TaskA task is a classroom activity that has a ‘real-world’ outcome e.g. a problem is solved, genuinely wanted information is exchanged. Tasks provide a purpose for the learning and use of language other than simply learning language items for their own sake (Rubdy 1998). Generally, a task is completed by using language freely to communicate in speech or writing. Some believe that tasks should not focus on practising any one specific piece of language, but rather be open-ended. In the ELT literature the term task is sometimes used to refer to activity, sometimes to tasks with a specific language aim. There is considerable debate over what a task is, as there is over Task-Based Learning, in which tasks are the main drivers for learning. Example "He always liked to give his students tasks to do as he thought they appreciated the sense of achievement tasks produce and their relevance to getting things done outside the classroom." Further reading B. Kumaravadivelu (1991). Language-learning tasks: teacher intention and learner interpretation. ELT J 45 (2): 98-107. Nunan, D. (1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. and Schmidt, R. (2010) Longman dictionary of language and applied linguistics. Harlow: Pearson. Rubdy, R. (1998). Key concepts in ELT. ELTJ 52/3 http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/eltj/keyconcepts.html Willis, D. and Willis, J.( 2007). Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/taskbased.html
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Task-Based LearningA way of learning and a method of syllabus or course design which is based on learners completing tasks. There is much debate over what constitutes Task-Based Learning, and particularly over what role a focus on language should play, if any. Some e.g. N.S. Prabhu, maintain that there should be no focus on language in Task-Based Learning i.e. that language should be learnt purely through exposure, acquisition and use. Others prefer to see some language input or focus on form, either at the pre-task stage or post-task or both. Example "Our classes were task-based – we did one task followed by another e.g. comparing, problem-solving, classifying, sorting, surveying. I enjoyed them as we always used language to do something real." Further reading Foster, P. (1999). Key concepts in ELT. ELTJ 53/1 http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/eltj/keyconcepts.html Hawkes, M.L. (2012). Using task repetition to direct learner attention and focus on form. ELT J 66 (3): 327-336. Littlewood, W. (2004). The task-based approach: some questions and suggestions. ELTJ 58/4.Oxford University Press. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Samuda. V. and Bygate, M. (2008) Tasks in Second Language Learning, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 17/1, 38-62. Willis, J. (1996) A framework for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman.
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Teacher Talking Time (TTT)Kumaravadivelu, B. (1993). Maximizing learning potential in the communicative classroom. ELT Journal 47/1. Nunan, D. (1987). Communicative language teaching: making it work. ELTJournal 41/2. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan. van Lier, L. (1996) Interaction in the Language Curriculum: Awareness, Autonomy and Authenticity. Harlow: Longman |
TenseTense is the grammatical form used in a verb to show the time of occurrence of an event or action. Example There are only two tenses in English, present and past. In They study English, study is an example of the present simple tense. In They studied English last year, studied is an example of the past simple tense. Further reading Batstone, R. (1994) Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Parrott, M. (2010). Grammar for English Language Teachers, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan. Thornbury, S. (1997). About Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Test Teach Test (TTT)Spratt, M., Pulverness, A., Williams, M. (2011). The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lindsay, C. and Knight, P. (2006). Learning and Teaching English: A Course for Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/test-teach-test |
TextA text is a collection of spoken or written sentences or utterances that form a cohesive and coherent whole, which have the features of a particular genre and perform a specific communicative function. Examples of text types are narratives, descriptions, processes. Example "Much language teaching used to focus on helping learners produce sentences. Nowadays, though, there is greater focus on the features of texts such as their functions and the grammar needed to express those functions. Narratives for example often follow chronological order and make extensive use of past tenses." Further reading Cook, G. (1989). Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson. Thornbury, S. (1997). About Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thornbury, S. (2006) An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan.
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ThesaurusA thesaurus is a reference book of words organised according to their similarity of meaning or belonging to the same lexical set. The purpose of a thesaurus is to help us find the word that best expresses what we want to say. A thesaurus can provide a very rich resource for drawing a mind map. This is why there are several visual thesaurus computer programmes. Example Click here to see an example from a thesaurus for the word ‘Money’. Further reading Davidson, G. (2002). Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. London: Penguin. Information about Roget's Thesaurus on Wikipedia Visual mind maps: http://www.visuwords.com/
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Threshold levelThis term is used with two principal meanings in ELT. The first is to refer to the work by J.K. Van Ek and John Trim ‘The Threshold Level’ which was first published by the Council of Europe in 1989. This publication was amongst the first to specify per learning level the situations in which learners need to use English, and what grammar, vocabulary and functions they require to do so. The focus of the Threshold Level was mainly on survival language and it was very influential in syllabus and course book design in the 1980s and 1990s. The Threshold Level was considered to be the minimal level at which learners achieved functional ability in the language. The other meaning for threshold level is the minimal level that learners need to be at in order to do something e.g. An IELTS band 5.5 is often given as the threshold level for university study through the medium of English. Example "Some people say that to start learning through CLIL learners must have reached threshold level in their own language first." Further reading Bialystok, E. (2001. Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy and Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cummins, J. (1984) Bilingualism and Special Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pegagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Rampton, B. (1990) Displacing the "native speaker": Expertise, affiliation and inheritance in ELT Journal 44/2. Van Ek, J.K. and Trim J. (1998) Threshold 1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://www.englishprofile.org/index.php/resources/t-series
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Tones and tone groupsA tone group is a word or group of words belonging together in sense and across which one tone operates. A tone group is sometimes known as a tone unit or as an intonation contour. A tone is a movement in pitch across a tone group and which indicates meaning. In English there are four main tones: rise, fall, fall-rise and rise-fall. A tone has different parts which occur in a fixed sequence: head →nucleus →tail Example Can you say these tone groups following the tones given in the intonation contours? Tomorrow
Last night
Only last night
Just a few minutes ago
Further reading Brazil, D., Couthard, M. and Johns, C. (1980). Discourse Intonation and Language Teaching. Harlow: Longman. De Lacy, P. (Ed.) (2012). The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gussenhoven, C. (2004). The Phonology of Tone and Intonation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roach, Peter (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology, 4th edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Underhill, A. (2005) Sound Foundations. Oxford: MacMillan. Wells, J.C. (2006) English Intonation: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roach, P. English Phonetics and Phonology. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/intonation
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Top down/bottom upThese terms are used to refer to strategies we use when listening and reading in order to get meaning from a text. Top down skills involve using our knowledge of the world, such as topic knowledge, familiarity with the speaker, familiarity with the genre, to make sense of what we are hearing or reading. Bottom up skills involve using the language in the text, such as the meaning of words or the grammar of a sentence, to make sense of what we are hearing or reading. Good readers or listeners are believed to make use of the two strategies interactively. Example When we read a text in class I always do a warmer to find out what the learners know about the topic and get them to predict its content. In that way they make use of their top down strategies. Then I often do reading for detail as well, as this kind of reading really requires them to read the language in the text to suck out its meaning. This gives them practice in using their bottom up strategies. Further reading Brown, S. (2006). Teaching Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Field, J. (1999). Key concepts in ELT: ‘Bottom up’ and ‘top down’. ELTJournal 53/4. Hedge, Tricia. (2003): Teaching & Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McDonough J. and Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and Methods in ELT. Oxford: Blackwell. Scrivener, J. (2011). Learning Teaching, 3rd edition. Oxford: Macmillan. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/listening-top-down-bottom https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/bottom https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/top-down
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TPRTPR stands for Total Physical Response, and is a way of teaching language developed by James Asher. It involves learners in responding physically to instructions spoken or stories told by the teacher. Learners are not expected to speak until they feel ready to do so. TPR is often used for teaching younger children. Example Last lesson I told my class the story of Goldilocks and the three bears. As I told it they acted out what they heard as I was telling it. They loved it, and so did I! Further reading Asher, J. J., "What is TPR?" in TPR-World. https://www.tpr-world.com/ Cook, V. (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Hodder Education. Larsen-Freeman, Diane (2000).Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_physical_response
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Transformation drillA transformation drill is one in which the teacher provides the students with a base sentence to repeat, then gives them a prompt to incorporate into the sentence. Using the prompt requires learners to change the grammar of the initial sentence. Transformation drills were thought to help students learn new structures by providing controlled practice of a target structure and understanding of the linguistic context in which it operates. Example Here is an example of a transformation drill: Teacher: Repeat this sentence after me: They bought an apple Students: They bought an apple Teacher: eat Students: They ate an apple Teacher: sell Students: They sold an apple Teacher: lose Students: They lost an apple etc Further reading Baker, J. and Westrup, H. (2003). Essential Speaking Skills. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Scrivener, J. (2011). Learning Teaching, 3rd edition. London: Macmillan. Spratt, M., Pulverness, A., Williams, M. (2011). The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/drilling-1 https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/drilling-2
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Transitive / IntransitiveLongman Dictionary of Teaching and Applied Linguistics (2010). Harlow: Pearson.
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TurnHouck, N.R. and Tatsuki, D.H. (eds.) (2011). Pragmatics: Teaching Natural Conversation. Virginia: TESOL. |